Spelling, like reading, is a complex task that requires a set of cognitive skills operating in conjunction. However spelling and reading are not two sides of the same coin; spelling is often more difficult for students to learn and for teachers to teach. The complexity of spelling relative to reading is particularly evident in individuals with reading disabilities, as they often learn to compensate for reading difficulty but remain poor spellers throughout their lives. The goal of this research project is to explore the factors that make spelling such a complex cognitive task. This application combines both behavioral and neuroimaging techniques to explore the cognitive and neurobiological mechanisms underlying spelling in skilled and disabled readers. First, the investigators will develop new experimental protocols that will allow them to evaluate subtle individual differences in spelling ability. Second, using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) techniques, the investigators will examine the neurobiological patterns of activation associated with the cognitive processes underlying spelling within the context of a dual-route model of spelling. Additionally the investigators will extend these investigations to younger and bilingual readers in order to explore (1) how these mechanisms develop, and (2) whether the different language environment of bilingual individuals alter the development of these mechanisms. The knowledge gained through this research should provide insight into the development of remediation techniques designed to help disabled readers compensate for their spelling difficulties.